creatinine comes up often in conversation and rarely with the context attached. Here we lay out the basics in order, then work through the practical considerations.
Last reviewed on 2026-08-01. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Commercial creatine monohydrate is typically a white to off-white powder with low odor. It is commonly sold as a fine powder, micronized powder, or larger crystals, but these are physical forms of the same chemical. Purity grades vary, and products may contain small amounts of related substances such as creatinine, dicyandiamide, or moisture. The monohydrate is often selected for supplements and research because its production is well established and its behavior in water is predictable. Analytical certificates usually report assay, loss on drying, and heavy metals.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed from creatine and one water molecule in its solid lattice. Creatine itself is a nitrogen-containing organic acid involved in energy transfer in muscle and other tissues. The monohydrate form is the most common solid form used in research and commercial products because it is stable and easy to handle. The term "monohydrate" refers to the fixed one-to-one ratio of water to creatine in the crystal, not to moisture content. This distinction matters when comparing labels or calculating creatine content.
Commercial creatine monohydrate is produced mainly by chemical synthesis rather than extraction from animal tissue. Suppliers provide a certificate of analysis listing assay, water content, and impurity limits, and some products undergo third-party testing. Verification of identity can use infrared or Raman spectroscopy alongside chromatographic methods. Storage recommendations generally call for a cool, dry place and a tightly closed container to limit moisture uptake. Open questions include how packaging, flavoring agents, and long-term storage affect the stability of finished products.
Dry creatine monohydrate is generally stable when kept sealed and protected from heat and moisture. In solution, however, creatine undergoes a slow cyclization to creatinine, a related compound with no role in phosphocreatine storage. The rate of this conversion increases with temperature and is influenced by pH. Because creatinine is a common impurity in liquid or poorly stored products, analytical testing often measures both compounds. The crystalline monohydrate is less prone to degradation than aqueous preparations, though caking can occur if moisture enters the container.
Laboratory analysis of creatine monohydrate typically uses high-performance liquid chromatography to separate creatine from creatinine and other impurities. Detection may be ultraviolet, refractive index, or mass spectrometric, depending on the laboratory's equipment and the required sensitivity. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can quantify the main component and identify related substances. Water content is measured by Karl Fischer titration, which is important because the monohydrate has a defined theoretical hydration level. Heavy metals, residual solvents, and microbial limits are also checked in quality control programs.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical name | N-(aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine monohydrate | Nomenclature varies across sources. |
| Common synonyms | Creatine hydrate; creatine monohydrate | “Monohydrate” specifies one water per creatine. |
| Appearance | White to off-white crystalline powder | Particle size and flowability vary by grade. |
| Solubility class | Soluble in water; slightly soluble in ethanol | Dissolution increases with temperature and stirring. |
| Typical storage | Tightly closed container at 15–25 °C | Protect from moisture and excessive heat. |
In the body, creatine is obtained from dietary meat and fish and is also synthesized from arginine, glycine, and methionine. Muscle stores creatine and phosphocreatine, which participate in the rapid regeneration of adenosine triphosphate during short, intense activity. The monohydrate form is used in research because it is chemically defined, stable as a dry solid, and relatively inexpensive to produce. Questions remain about whether other creatine forms offer meaningful advantages in absorption or tissue retention, and findings vary across studies and populations.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed from creatine and one molecule of water. Creatine itself is a nitrogen-containing organic acid that occurs in vertebrate muscle and other tissues. The monohydrate designation refers to the water included in the crystal lattice, not to water added during manufacturing. Its chemical formula is commonly written as C4H9N3O2·H2O. The solid is typically a white, odorless powder with low solubility in water at room temperature. It is one of several creatine forms described in scientific and commercial literature.
The compound was identified in the nineteenth century after chemists isolated a nitrogenous substance from meat extracts. Later work established its role in muscle energy metabolism and its conversion to phosphocreatine. Chemical synthesis of creatine followed, and industrial production made the monohydrate widely available as a purified powder. Interest expanded in the late twentieth century when researchers began studying creatine supplementation and muscle physiology. Historical accounts sometimes differ on exact dates and attributions, but the broad sequence from tissue extracts to synthetic production is well documented.
Analytical laboratories commonly use high-performance liquid chromatography to separate creatine from creatinine and related impurities. Ion chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and titration assays can also quantify the compound. Water content is measured by Karl Fischer titration or loss on drying, because the monohydrate has a defined theoretical water fraction. Particle size, bulk density, and flowability are physical properties that affect blending and capsule filling. These measurements support quality control and help verify that a lot matches its specification.
Regulatory status varies by country. In the United States, creatine monohydrate is sold as a dietary supplement ingredient, while in the European Union it is placed on the market as a food supplement component. Some jurisdictions have established purity monographs or permitted health claims, while others treat it as a novel food or require notification. Product labels may state the amount of creatine monohydrate or the equivalent creatine content, and the two figures can differ. Independent testing programs sometimes check identity, potency, and contaminant limits.
Creatine monohydrate is stable under dry, cool conditions but can degrade when exposed to moisture and heat. In solution, it undergoes hydrolysis to creatinine, a cyclic derivative with little role in phosphagen energy transfer. The rate of conversion increases with temperature, storage time, and acidic or alkaline pH. Solid material kept in a sealed container at room temperature generally retains its composition for extended periods. Moisture uptake is a primary concern because it can accelerate breakdown and caking.
Commercial creatine monohydrate is typically manufactured through chemical synthesis, often starting from sarcosine and cyanamide. The resulting material is crystallized, washed, and dried to a specified hydrate content. Finished lots are tested for identity, purity, moisture, and heavy metals before release. Because the compound can cyclize to creatinine under heat or prolonged storage in solution, manufacturers control temperature and humidity during processing. The solid itself is relatively stable when kept dry and sealed, but moisture uptake can cause caking and complicate accurate assay.
Analytical laboratories commonly identify creatine monohydrate by high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, often after dissolving the sample in water or dilute acid. Ion-exchange or reversed-phase columns separate creatine from creatinine and related guanidino compounds. Nitrogen content can be checked by Kjeldahl or combustion methods, while moisture is measured by Karl Fischer titration or loss on drying. These techniques give complementary views: chromatographic purity addresses related substances, whereas moisture and elemental data confirm hydrate stoichiometry. No single test defines quality by itself; a combination is used in specifications.
Responsible drug use advocates that users should not take drugs at the same time as activities such as driving, swimming, operating machinery, or other activities that are unsafe without a sober state. Responsible drug use is emphasized as a primary prevention technique in harm-reduction drug policies. Harm-reduction policies were popularized in the late 1980s, although they began in the 1970s counter-culture, through cartoons explaining responsible drug use and the consequences of irresponsible drug use to users. Another issue is that the illegality of drugs causes social and economic consequences for users—the drugs may be "cut" with adulterants and the purity varies wildly, making overdoses more likely—and legalization of drug production and distribution could reduce these and other dangers of illegal drug use.
=== High Voltage Power Corporation === In July 1968, High Voltage Engineering Corporation and Reynolds Metals Company announced they would form a joint venture partnership to develop, produce, and sell gas-insulated systems for transmission of electric power. The venture, High Voltage Power Corporation, aimed to commercialize technology for underground electric power transmission. HVEC president Denis Robinson noted increasing need by bury transmission lines underground for technological, economic, and aesthetic reasons, and emphasizing that compressed gas offered unique advantages for transmitting large amounts of power at high voltages with increased reliability at lower cost. Each company held a 50% interest in the venture, with Reynolds providing funds and technical research while HVEC contributed its patents, licenses, and know-how. The development work was carried out at HVEC's Burlington factory. The subsidiary's products included insulating-core reactors for nuclear power plants and gas-insulated transmission systems for electrical utilities, based on Van de Graaff's insulating-core transformer invention. However, by 1974, High Voltage Power Corp. losses were consuming 60-75% of HVEC's cash flow despite generating only $1.5-2 million in annual sales, leading HVEC to divest from the subsidiary.
Sishen → Port of Saldanha (OREX), for transporting iron ore and manganese Ermelo → Richards Bay Coal Terminal, for transporting coal Northern Cape manganese fields → Gqeberha / Ngqura, for transporting manganese The country's "Core Rail Network", with a combined length of 4,481km, plays a major role in connecting the country's geographically separated economic hubs (metro areas), industrial hubs, inland logistics centers, and seaports. As of 2026, the network is as follows:
Cut flowers have become a part of international trade and an active economic engine in a number of tropical countries (for instance in Kenya). Research and markets has estimated that the cut flower global market will reach a size of US$50.1 billion by 2030 from its current estimate of US$33.3 billion for 2022. Roses are projected to increase at a 5.9% compound annual growth rate, while chrysanthemum and gerbera will increase by 5.3% over the next eight years. Royal FloraHolland in Aalsmeer, Netherlands, is the largest flower market in the world. Flowers with a value of over US$4 billion pass through the market each year. In 2019, the export value of cut flowers was €4,200 million from the EU, Colombia exports were €1,235 million, Ecuador exports were €721 million, Kenya exports were €487 million and Ethiopia exports were €180 million, while US exports were only €14 million compared to €1,052 million in imports. Union Fleur, a European international flower trade association, represents the interests of Austria, Colombia, Denmark, Ethiopia, Germany, Italy, Kenya, Netherlands, Sweden, Turkey, Uganda, and the United States. Most of Royal FloraHolland exports go to European neighbors. Cut flower exports from China rose from US$71.4 million in 2011 to US$162.1 million in 2022, primarily from Yunnan Province where there are 300,000 farmers cultivating 1.5 million hectares of flowers. Overall production is much higher because 90% of flowers are sold in China. Most cut flowers are sold through the Dounan Flower Market in Kunming, Yunnan, China.
=== Classification === The common type is sIBM; it strikes individuals apparently at random. There is a type that has been observed in multiple siblings in the same generation in several families, termed familial inflammatory sIBM, but it is not passed on from generation to generation. There are also several very rare forms of hereditary inclusion body myopathy (hIBM) that are linked to specific genetic defects and that are passed on from generation to generation, each inherited in different ways.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Germanium batteries === The company was developing germanium-based batteries by 2017, citing graphite-free batteries and an electric vehicle battery that fully charges in five minutes, expecting "millions of cars" to be equipped with its electric vehicle battery by 2020. The company announced in 2018 that its mobile phone battery would be commercially available by 2019, and that it had plans to build a battery factory in the United States by 2022. In 2019 it announced the commercialization of a 168-cell germanium-tin battery for electric scooters, and stated that its mobile phone products would be commercially available in late 2020 and the scooter battery would be commercially available in 2021. The company's CEO said its electric car battery would have ten times as many cells as the scooter battery, charge fast enough to add 300 miles of range in under five minutes, and have a cooling system; and that its batteries did not degrade. A 2019 peer-reviewed study concluded that the company's stated battery capabilities have no basis in published, peer-reviewed literature, and listed its unreleased products. Science journalist John Timmer could not identify in 2021 any published research about the company's germanium battery technology.
=== Aviptadil === In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, scientists at Relief conducted initial studies into the efficacy of RLF-100 in treating severe COVID-19 patients. In June 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration granted fast-track designation to RLF-100 for treatment of respiratory distress in COVID-19. In September 2020, Relief partnered with US-Israeli firm NRX Pharmaceuticals (formerly NeuroRx Inc) for the co-development of the drug and the co-ordination of US trials. In April 2021, a reformulated version of aviptadil, known as Zyesami, was included in a National Institutes of Health (NIH) sponsored Phase 3 trial with the aim of testing aviptadil against remdesivir. In May 2021, NRX submitted a request for an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) to the US FDA for aviptadil's use in patients in intensive care. On 7 October 2021 Relief Therapeutics filed a lawsuit against NRX Pharmaceuticals and its CEO Dr. Jonathan Javitt in the Supreme Court of the State of New York, citing multiple alleged breaches of the collaboration agreement signed by the two companies for the co-development of aviptadil. On 4 November 2021 the FDA declined EUA for the drug, but committed to working with NRX to further develop it. On 29 November 2021, NRX announced that data analysis from the NIH-sponsored Phase 3 trial showed a fourfold increase in survival at 60 days for patients administered with Zyesami (Aviptadil) vs those who received placebo.
The city's automotive industry played a pivotal role in the Italian economic miracle of the 1950s and 1960s, attracting hundreds of thousands of migrants to the city, particularly from the rural southern regions of Italy. The number of migrants was so high that Turin was said to be "the third southern Italian city after Naples and Palermo". The population soon reached 1 million in 1960 and peaked at almost 1.2 million in 1971. The exceptional growth gains of the city gained it the nickname of Capitale dell'automobile (Automobile Capital), being often compared with Detroit, the major centre of the U.S. automobile industry (these cities were 'twinned' as sister cities in 1998). In the 1970s and 1980s, the oil and automotive industry crisis severely hit the city, and its population began to sharply decline as jobs were lost. In 30 years, the population decreased by more than one-fourth of the 1971 total. The long population decline of the city has begun to reverse itself only in recent years; the population grew from 865,000 to slightly over 900,000 by the end of the 20th century. In 2006, Turin hosted the Winter Olympic Games.
Russia launched around 76 missiles on Kyiv, Kharkiv, Poltava, and Kremenchuk, destroying infrastructure. Reports suggested at least four were killed in Kryvyi Rih. The missiles were fired at nine power plants; Ukraine claimed 60 were intercepted. A Ukrainian strike on the village of Lantrativka, in Luhansk Oblast, officially killed 11 Russian trench diggers, but eyewitnesses claimed 84 were killed.
Tumor biopsy samples used for diagnostics always contain as little as 5% of the target variant as compared to wildtype sequence. Also, for noninvasive applications from peripheral blood or urine, the DNA test must be specific enough to detect mutations at variant allele frequencies of less than 0.1%. Currently, by optimizing the traditional PCR, there's a new invention, amplification-refractory mutation system (ARMS) is a method for detecting DNA sequence variants in cancer. The principle behind ARMS is that the enzymatic extension activity of DNA polymerases is highly sensitive to mismatches near the 3' end of primer. Many different companies have developed diagnostics tests based on ARMS PCR primers. For instance, Qiagen therascreen, Roche cobas and Biomerieux THxID have developed FDA approved PCR tests for detecting lung, colon cancer and metastatic melanoma mutations in the KRAS, EGFR and BRAF genes. Their IVD kits were basically validated on genomic DNA extracted from FFPE tissue. There are also microarrays that utilize hybridization mechanism to diagnose cancer. More than a million of different probes can be synthesized on an array with Affymetrix's Genechip technology with a detection limit of one to ten copies of mRNA per well. Optimized microarrays are typically considered to produce repeatable relative quantitation of different targets.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
One application of thermal ionization is thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS). In thermal ionization mass spectrometry, a chemically purified material is placed onto a filament which is then heated to high temperatures to cause some of the material to be ionized as it is thermally desorbed (boiled off) the hot filament. Filaments are generally flat pieces of metal around 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) wide, 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) thick, bent into an upside-down U shape and attached to two contacts that supply a current. This method is widely used in radiometric dating, where the sample is ionized under vacuum. The ions being produced at the filament are focused into an ion beam and then passed through a magnetic field to separate them by mass. The relative abundances of different isotopes can then be measured, yielding isotope ratios. When these isotope ratios are measured by TIMS, mass-dependent fractionation occurs as species are emitted by the hot filament. Fractionation occurs due to the excitation of the sample and therefore must be corrected for accurate measurement of the isotope ratio. There are several advantages of the TIMS method. It has a simple design, is less expensive than other mass spectrometers, and produces stable ion emissions. It requires a stable power supply, and is suitable for species with a low ionization energy, such as strontium and lead. The disadvantages of this method stem from the maximum temperature achieved in thermal ionization.
...domestic crisis within the Soviet system. ... It may be that the thermodynamic law of entropy has ... caught up with the Soviet system, which now seems to expend more energy on simply maintaining its equilibrium than on improving itself. We could be seeing a period of foreign movement at a time of internal decay.
August 14, 2009: Hong Kong After shrinking 4.3% during January–March, Hong Kong's GDP grew 3.3% between April and June, improving its GDP forecasts, which went from negative growth between 5.5 and 6.5% to negative growth between 4.5 and 5.5%. Still, comparing the second quarter of 2009 to the second quarter of 2008, Hong Kong's GDP shrank 3.8% in the former.
== Software and technology == Cable landing station, where a submarine cable comes ashore Common Language Specification, Microsoft CLS (command) to clear computer screen in several environments CLS (CONFIG.SYS directive), in DR-DOS Creative Lighting System, in Nikon speedlights
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a solid form of creatine that contains one water molecule per creatine molecule in the crystal lattice. The hydrate water is part of the crystal structure rather than loose moisture. The term is often used for the common crystalline powder grade.
Creatine anhydrous lacks the water of crystallization and therefore contains a higher creatine fraction by mass. The monohydrate is more common in commerce and research because it is stable and easy to handle. The two forms are not identical in solid state, though both yield creatine when dissolved.
Creatine is the base molecule, while creatine monohydrate is a hydrate of that molecule. Once dissolved, the hydrate water becomes part of the solvent and free creatine is present. In casual usage the names are often shortened to creatine, but the solid forms differ.
Purity testing often uses high-performance liquid chromatography to measure creatine and creatinine. Water content can be checked by Karl Fischer titration. Additional tests may cover heavy metals, residual solvents, and microbial contamination.