Everything below concerns Zwitterion. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2025-08-14. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
In animals, creatine is synthesized mainly in liver, kidney, and pancreas from arginine, glycine, and methionine. The first committed step transfers a guanidino group from arginine to glycine, forming guanidinoacetate. Subsequent methylation by S-adenosylmethionine yields creatine. Dietary sources include meat and fish; endogenous synthesis supplies part of the body pool. Most creatine is stored in skeletal muscle, where it is converted to phosphocreatine and participates in rapid regeneration of adenosine triphosphate during short, intense activity.
Commercial creatine products appear in several forms, including monohydrate, hydrochloride, citrate, nitrate, and ethyl ester. Creatine monohydrate is the most studied form and serves as a reference material in comparative research. Different forms vary in solubility, pH, and water content, but they share creatine as the active moiety after dissolution. Claims that one form is uniformly superior remain debated, and study designs often differ in population, exercise protocol, and outcome measures. Purity and hydration state are central to interpreting product labels.
The term creatine monohydrate is often shortened to creatine in casual usage, though other creatine forms exist, including citrate, nitrate, and hydrochloride salts. These alternative forms differ in solubility, pH behavior, and the amount of creatine delivered per unit mass. Regulatory categories vary by country: some jurisdictions treat it as a food ingredient, while others place it under supplement or drug frameworks depending on claims and presentation. Standard reference texts list it as a naturally occurring nitrogenous organic acid rather than a vitamin or mineral.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline organic compound formed from creatine and water in a one-to-one ratio. It belongs to the guanidino family and contains a methylated guanidine group attached to an acetate-like chain. The solid is commonly described as a white, odorless powder with a mildly bitter taste. Its molecular formula is C4H11N3O3·H2O, and the hydrated form is the most widely traded grade. The compound occurs naturally in vertebrate muscle and brain tissue, where it participates in rapid energy buffering.
In aqueous solution, creatine monohydrate exists mainly as a zwitterion, carrying both a positive guanidinium charge and a negative carboxylate charge. This charge separation raises water solubility relative to many neutral organic solids and helps explain its behavior in analytical separations. The monohydrate can lose its water of crystallization under sustained heat or low humidity, converting toward anhydrous creatine. Such transitions matter for mass balance calculations because the hydrate contributes water mass that is not part of the active creatine molecule.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical formula (monohydrate) | C4H11N3O3 | Includes one water molecule per creatine unit. |
| Molecular weight | 149.15 g/mol | Calculated for the monohydrate; anhydrous creatine is 131.13 g/mol. |
| Appearance | White crystalline powder | Odorless; particle size can vary by manufacturing. |
| CAS Registry Number | 6020-87-7 | Identifies creatine monohydrate; creatine base is 57-00-1. |
| Common synonyms | Creatine hydrate; methylguanidoacetic acid monohydrate | Naming varies by registry and supplier. |
Stability studies examine how creatine monohydrate changes under controlled temperature and humidity. The solid is generally stable when kept dry, but moisture can promote hydrolysis to creatinine, especially in solution or at elevated temperatures. Color, odor, and assay values are monitored over time to detect degradation. Because degradation pathways depend on storage conditions, shelf-life claims should specify the tested packaging, temperature, and humidity. Open questions remain about the long-term behavior of different crystal habits and particle sizes.
Regulatory treatment of creatine monohydrate varies by country and intended use. In some jurisdictions it is sold as a dietary supplement, while in others it may be treated as a food ingredient or a pharmaceutical raw material. Pharmacopeial monographs, where available, define identification, assay limits, and impurity thresholds. Manufacturers often follow these monographs or internal specifications to ensure batch-to-batch consistency. Analytical method validation is important because different methods can yield different apparent purity values if sample preparation or detection conditions are not controlled.
Creatine monohydrate is stable under dry, cool conditions but can degrade when exposed to moisture and heat. In solution, it undergoes hydrolysis to creatinine, a cyclic derivative with little role in phosphagen energy transfer. The rate of conversion increases with temperature, storage time, and acidic or alkaline pH. Solid material kept in a sealed container at room temperature generally retains its composition for extended periods. Moisture uptake is a primary concern because it can accelerate breakdown and caking.
Analytical laboratories commonly use high-performance liquid chromatography to separate creatine from creatinine and related impurities. Ion chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and titration assays can also quantify the compound. Water content is measured by Karl Fischer titration or loss on drying, because the monohydrate has a defined theoretical water fraction. Particle size, bulk density, and flowability are physical properties that affect blending and capsule filling. These measurements support quality control and help verify that a lot matches its specification.
2019: New Zealand chemist Margaret Brimble is the first New Zealand woman to be inducted into the Division of Medicinal Chemistry of the American Chemical Society’s Hall of Fame. 2019: Malawian nurse and educator Address Malata is appointed as Vice-Chancellor of the Malawi University of Science and Technology (MUST), becoming the first Malawian women university Vice-Chancellor. 2019: American imaging scientist Katie Bouman developed an algorithm that made the first visualization of a black hole possible using the Event Horizon Telescope. She was part of the team of over 200 people who implemented the project.
Glass noodles, or fensi (traditional Chinese: 粉絲; simplified Chinese: 粉丝; pinyin: fěnsī; lit. 'flour thread'), sometimes called cellophane noodles, are a type of transparent noodle made from starch (such as mung bean starch, potato starch, sweet potato starch, tapioca, or canna starch) and water. They originated in China. A stabilizer such as chitosan or alum (illegal in some jurisdictions) may also be used. They are generally sold in dried form, soaked to reconstitute, then used in soups, stir-fried dishes, or spring rolls. They are called "glass noodles" because of their glass-like transparency when cooked. Glass noodles are not the same as rice vermicelli, which is made from rice and white in color rather than clear (after cooking in water).
== Further reading == Holmer, Marianne. Aquaculture in the Ecosystem. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer, 2008. Molyneaux, Paul. Swimming in Circles: Aquaculture and the End of Wild Oceans. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 2006. Stickney, Robert R. Aquaculture: An Introductory Text. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, MA: CABI Publishing, 2005. World Bank. Changing the Face of the Waters: The Promise and Challenge of Sustainable Aquaculture. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2007.
Complications were observed in each of the leucotomy patients and included: "increased temperature, vomiting, bladder and bowel incontinence, diarrhea, and ocular affections such as ptosis and nystagmus, as well as psychological effects such as apathy, akinesia, lethargy, timing, and local disorientation, kleptomania, and abnormal sensations of hunger". Moniz asserted that these effects were transitory and, according to his published assessment, the outcome for these first twenty patients was that 35%, or seven cases, improved significantly, another 35% were somewhat improved and the remaining 30% (six cases) were unchanged. There were no deaths and he did not consider that any patients had deteriorated following leucotomy.
== Connective tissue cells == Connective tissue cells are typically divided into two types, fixed cells and wandering cells. Fibrocytes, or fibroblasts and fat cells(adipocytes) are fixed cells, where as macrophages, monocytes, lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils and mast cells are wandering cells. Fibrocytes are the most common cell type in connective tissues. If fibrocytes are stimulated by damage to the surrounding tissue, the fibrocyte is altered into a fibroblast. The fibroblasts contain organelles that are necessary for the synthesis and excretion of proteins needed to repair the tissue damage. Fibrocytes usually do not leave the connective tissue. Reticular cells are usually larger than fibrocytes. Reticular cells are the fibrocytes of reticular connective tissue and form a network of reticular fibers. Adipocytes are fat cells that are fixed cells in loose connective tissue. Their main function is the storage of lipid. Macrophages arise from monocytes. Monocytes originate in the bone marrow upon which they are released into the blood stream. They are mobile and leave the blood stream to enter connective tissues where they differentiate into macrophages. The fibroblasts are the most important in the connective tissue. Fibroblasts manufacture and maintain the extracellular material. They migrate throughout the extracellular matrix to wherever they are needed. Adipocytes are cells that are very efficient at storing energy in the form of triglycerides.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
In general, deamidation can be eliminated by proteolysis at an acidic pH or at a slightly basic pH (4.5 and 8.0, respectively) using the endoprotease, Glu-C. The rates of deamidation depend on multiple factors, including the primary sequences and higher-order structures of the proteins, pH, temperature, and components in the solutions. Most potential deamidation sites are stabilized by higher order structure. Asn-Gly (NG), is the most flexible and since it is acidic, it is most prone to deamidation with a half-life around 24 h under physiological conditions (pH 7.4, 37 °C). As a free amino acid, or as the N-terminal residue of a peptide or protein, glutamine deamidates readily to form pyroglutamic acid (5-oxoproline). The reaction proceeds via nucleophilic attack of the α-amino group on the side-chain amide to form a γ-lactam with the elimination of ammonia from the side-chain.
=== Aromatic amines === In aromatic amines ("anilines"), nitrogen is often nearly planar owing to conjugation of the lone pair with the aryl substituent. The C-N distance is correspondingly shorter. In aniline, the C–N distance is the same as the C–C distances.
=== Incompressible isotropic case === For an incompressible and isotropic Newtonian fluid in laminar flow only in the direction x (i.e. where viscosity is isotropic in the fluid), the shear stress is related to the strain rate by the simple constitutive equation
== Research == Thymosin α1 (TA1), a molecule with immune enhancing properties, was the first of the thymosins to enter clinical trials. It has been approved in China and more than 30 other countries, and has shown great promise in the treatment of severe sepsis, cancer, and a number of other diseases including the potential treatment of cystic fibrosis. Most recently, TA1 has been found to synergize with a check-point inhibitor and further extend the survival of Stage III/IV melanoma patients previously treated with TA1. Thymosin β4 (Tβ4), the second of the thymosins to reach the clinic, has been shown to accelerate wound healing and the remodeling of injured tissues. An injectable form of Tβ4 has been developed for internal indications such as myocardial infarction, stroke and brain trauma. Early Phase 2 trials have been completed in patients with pressure and venostasis ulcers. Two Phase 2/3 trials in patients with dry eye and neurotrophic keratopathy have been completed in the United States with promising results. A third Phase 3 trial in dry eye will begin in 2019. RegeneRx Biopharmaceuticals is developing an injectable form of Tβ4 for internal indications such as myocardial infarction, stroke, multiple sclerosis, brain trauma, and peripheral neuropathy. Dr. Goldstein's research has helped define the role of biological response modifiers in health and disease, and has led to the discovery of important new links between the immune system, the neuroendocrine system and the brain.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth).... Four million enslaved people exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean. The trans-Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms, such as the Oyo Empire (Yoruba), the Ashanti Empire, the kingdom of Dahomey, and the Aro Confederacy. It is estimated that about 15 percent of slaves died during the voyage, with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself in the process of capturing and transporting indigenous peoples to the ships. Mauritania was the last country in the world to officially ban slavery, in 1981, with legal prosecution of slaveholders established in 2007.
== Air quality == The Air Quality Life Index (AQLI) by the Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago (EPIC) tracks ambient particulate pollution, measured in PM2.5, and calculates its impact on life expectancy. The World Health Organization's guideline is 10 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3). The 2016 index ranks Thailand as the seventh most polluted of 226 nations (1=highest μg/m3; 226=lowest μg/m3). Other ASEAN nations ranked were Laos, 8; Singapore, 12; Myanmar, 18; Indonesia, 19; Vietnam, 24; Malaysia, 41; Cambodia, 43; Brunei, 121; Philippines, 132.
Deionized water (DI water, DIW or de-ionized water), often synonymous with demineralized water/DM water, is water that has had almost all of its mineral ions removed, such as cations like sodium, calcium, iron, and copper, and anions such as chloride and sulfate. Deionization is a chemical process that uses specially manufactured ion-exchange resins, which exchange hydrogen and hydroxide ions for dissolved minerals, and then recombine to form water. Because most non-particulate water impurities are dissolved salts, deionization produces highly pure water that is generally similar to distilled water, with the advantage that the process is quicker and does not build up scale. However, deionization does not significantly remove uncharged organic molecules, viruses, or bacteria, except by incidental trapping in the resin. Specially made strong base anion resins can remove Gram-negative bacteria. Deionization can be done continuously and inexpensively using electrodeionization. Three types of deionization exist: co-current, counter-current, and mixed bed.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Creatine is the base compound, while creatine monohydrate includes one water molecule per creatine molecule in its crystal structure. The monohydrate form is common in supplements and analytical standards. The body uses creatine itself after the water is removed or dissociated.
Yes. Meat, fish, and other animal tissues contain creatine. Cooking can convert some creatine to creatinine, which has no role in phosphocreatine energy buffering. Plant foods contain little or no creatine.
Creatinine is a cyclic breakdown product formed from creatine and phosphocreatine. It is filtered by the kidneys and commonly measured in blood and urine as a marker of renal function. Creatine monohydrate is a supplement ingredient and research chemical, not the same molecule.
In common usage, yes, but technically creatine monohydrate is one specific hydrated salt form. Other creatine forms exist and differ in composition and properties. The monohydrate is the most studied and most widely available grade.